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Themes, Motifs, and Symbols
Themes
The Limits of Human Justice - Edmond Dantès takes justice into his own hands because he is dismayed by the limitations of modern criminal justice systems. Societal justice has allowed his enemies to slip through the cracks, going unpunished for their heinous crimes against him. Moreover, even if his enemies' crimes were uncovered, he does not believe that true justice would be carried out in their punishment, since in exchange for the years of emotional anguish that they caused Dantès, the most that they would be forced to suffer is a few seconds of pain, followed by death.
 Considering himself the agent of Providence, carrying out divine justice where human justice has failed, Dantès therefore sets out to punish these men as he believes they should be punished: by destroying all that is dear to them, just as they did to him. Yet what Dantès ultimately learns, as he wreaks havoc in the lives of the innocent as well as the guilty, is that justice carried out by human beings is inherently limited. The limits of human-delivered justice lie in the limits of human beings themselves. Lacking God's omniscience and omnipotence, human beings are simply not capable of, or justified in, carrying out the work of Providence. The final message of this epic work of crime and punishment is that human beings must simply resign themselves to allowing God to reward and punish when and how God sees fit.
Relative vs. Absolute Happiness - Of all the qualities that separate the sympathetic characters from the unsympathetic characters in The Count of Monte Cristo, none is more consistently found among the sympathetic, and lacking from the unsympathetic, than the ability to assess one's circumstances, in such a way as to feel satisfaction and even happiness with one's life. And even in his parting message to Maximilien, Dantès opines that, "There is neither happiness nor misery in the world; there is only the comparison of one state with another, nothing more." In simpler terms, what separates the good people from the bad people in The Count of Monte Cristo is that the good people appreciate the good things in life, and the bad people focus on what they lack.
The envy that drives Dantès's enemies to betray him arises from just this problem: despite the blessings that they have in their own life, Dantès's relatively better position sends them into a rage of dissatisfaction. Caderousse exemplifies this psychological deficiency, taking every possible positive event that life throws his way, and finding fault in it. Caderousse could easily have been a happy man, healthy, clever, and reasonably well off, especially when he receives the diamond, yet he is unable to view his circumstances in such a way as to actually make him happy. At the other end of this extreme are Julie and Emmanuel Herbaut, who are fully capable of feeling happiness, despite the various drawbacks in their current situation, such as their evident lack of wealth. The Dantès of the early chapters, perfectly thrilled with the small happinesses that God has granted him, provides another example of the good and easily satisfied man.
Love vs. Alienation - During the years that Dantès carries out his elaborate revenge scheme, he is a self-declared exile from humanity. Not only does he feel cut off from any country, society, or individual, but he also finds himself cut off from any normal human emotion. He is unable to experience joy, sorrow, excitement, and so on. The only emotions that he is capable of feeling are vengeful hatred and gratitude. One might plausibly think that his extreme social isolation and his narrow range of feeling are simply the result of his obsession with acting as the agent of Providence. It is not difficult to imagine that a decade-long devotion to a project like Dantès's might take a dramatic toll on one's psychology. Yet Dantès's alienation from humanity is not only an effect of his obsessive lust for revenge, but also an effect of his lack of love for any living person. Though he learns of the treachery of his enemies years before he escapes from prison, his alienation from humanity only begins to take hold when Abbé Faria dies. Until that time, his love for Faria keeps him connected to his own humanity, by keeping the humanizing emotion of love alive within him. When he learns that his father is dead as well, and that Mercédès has married another man, the alienation is complete. He is left without any living person whom he loves, and so he loses hold of any humanizing force. When he falls in love with Haydée, this force returns, reconciling him to his humanity, and enabling him to feel real emotion once again. In a triumphant declaration of emotion, he says to Haydée, "through you I again connect myself with life, through you I shall suffer, through you rejoice." His alienation, from society and from his own humanity, is overcome through his love of another human being.
Motifs
Names - In The Count of Monte Cristo names are constantly changing, signifying deeper changes within the characters themselves. Like the God of the Old Testament, Edmond Dantès assumes a host of different names, each associated with a different role he plays as the agent of Providence. He calls himself Abbé Busoni when standing in judgment, Lord Wilmore when engaging in acts of excessive generosity, and Monte Cristo while assuming the role of avenging angel. Villefort, too, changes his name, in his case because he refuses to adopt his father's title of Noirtier, a name closely associated with the despised Bonapartist party. Villefort's choice of name signifies both his political opportunism, and his willingness to ruthlessly sacrifice those close to him for his own personal gain. Fernand Mondego's change of name to Count of Morcerf is, on one level, merely a sign of his ascent into the realm of power and prestige. Yet, since he pretends that Morcerf is an old family name rather than a title he merely purchases, the name change is also a symbol of his fundamental dishonesty. Mercédès also undergoes a change of name, becoming The Countess of Morcerf, but this change in name, as we learn when she proves her enduring goodness, does not accompany a fundamental change in character. Instead, her name change merely emphasizes her connection to Dantès's rival, her husband, and, by association, her disloyalty to Dantès. Only Benedetto's change of name to Andrea Cavalcanti, seems to signify nothing deeper than the fact that he is assuming a false identity. The other name changes are external symbols of changes of character or role.
Suicide - Dantès, Monsieur Morrel, Maximilien Morrel, Haydée, Fernand Mondego, Madame d'Villefort, and Albert de Morcerf all contemplate, or actually pull off, an act of suicide during the course of the story, and the act of suicide is presented as an honorable and reasonable response to any devastating situation. While, Morrel contemplates his suicide because of an impending loss of honor, and Dantès contemplates taking his life because he has lost his freedom, suicide is most often presented in The Count of Monte Cristo, as true in Romantic literature in general, in connection with romantic loss. In fact, eagerness to take one's own life for the sake of a beloved is held up as one of the only sure signs of absolute devotion. Monte Cristo is only convinced that Maximilien loves Valentine, for instance, when he sees that Maximilien sincerely wants to die when confronted with her loss. Likewise, he only believes that Haydée loves him when she swears that she would take her life if he abandoned her. The frequency with which suicide is mentioned or contemplated by characters might seen to reveal a casual attitude toward this most serious of acts, but Dantès does gravely warn Maximilien not to take his life if there is anything in the world that he regrets leaving. It seems that, rather than a casual attitude toward life, the characters of The Count of Monte Cristo simply live life too melodramatically, finding the world devoid of hope and meaning on a fairly regular basis.
Politics - The Count of Monte Cristo is a historical novel, with key plot elements being provided by real historic events. Politics, therefore, play a significant role in the book, particularly in branding certain characters as good or bad. All of the major sympathetic characters are somehow connected to the democratic ideals of the Bonapartist party, from Morrel and Noirtier who were once themselves ardent fighters in the Bonapartist cause, to Dantès who emerges as a champion for individual rights, and Maximilien who fights for social equality in his wooing of Valentine. The major unsympathetic characters, by contrast, are overwhelmingly associated with the oppressive, aristocratic royalists (Morcerf, Villefort) or else are simply self-serving capitalist opportunists (Danglars), responsible for ushering in the soul-deadening age of the Industrial Revolution. Political allegiances serve as windows into the souls of Dumas's characters.
Symbols
The Sea - When Dantès escapes from prison, he plunges into the ocean, experiencing a second baptism and a renewed dedication of his soul to God. He has suffered a metaphorical death while in prison, the death of his old innocent, loving self. He emerges as a bitter and hateful man, bent on carrying out revenge on his enemies. Washed in the waters that lead him to freedom, his rebirth as a man transformed is completed. The sea continues to figure prominently in the book even after this symbolic baptism. Considering himself a citizen of no land, Dantès spends much of his time on the ocean, traveling the world in his yacht. The sea seems to beckon constantly to Dantès, a skilled sailor, offering him perpetual escape and solitude.
The Red Silk Purse - First used by Morrel in his attempt to save the life of Louis Dantès, Dantès later uses the red, silk purse when he is saving Morrel's life. The red purse thus becomes the physical symbol of the connection between good deeds and reward. Morrel recognizes the purse, and thus deduces the connection between the good deed being done on his behalf, and the good deed he once performed himself. He concludes that Dantès must be his savior, surmising that he is working from beyond the grave. Julie Morrel then emphasizes the symbolic power of the purse by keeping it constantly on display as a relic of her father's miraculous salvation.
The Elixir - Dantès's potent potion seems to have the power to both kill and bring to life, a power that Dantès comes to believe in too strongly. His overestimation of the power contained in the elixir symbolizes his overestimation of his own power, his delusion that he is almost Godlike, and that he has the right and the capacity to act as the agent of Providence. It is significant that, when faced with Edward's corpse, his first thought is to use his elixir to bring the boy to life. Of course, his elixir is not so powerful as to bring the dead to life, just as he himself is incapable of accomplishing Godlike feats. Granting life, like carrying out ultimate retribution, lies solely in God's province. It is in the same moment that Dantès is forced to acknowledge the limits of his elixir and realize his own limitations as a human being.
Plot Overview
At the age of nineteen, Edmond Dantès seems to have the perfect life. He is about to become the captain of a ship, he is engaged to a beautiful and kind woman, and he is well-liked by almost everyone who knows him. This perfect life, however, stirs up dangerous jealousy among some of his so-called friends. The treasurer of his ship, Danglers, envies Dantès's early career success; Fernand Mondego is in love with Dantès' fiancée and so envies his amorous success; his neighbor Caderousse is simply envious that Dantès is so much luckier in life than he is. Together, these three men draft a letter accusing Dantès of treason. There is some truth to their accusations: as a favor to his recently deceased captain, Dantès is carrying a letter from Napoleon to a group of Bonapartist sympathizers in Paris. Though Dantès himself has no political leanings, the undertaking is enough to implicate him as a treasonist. On the day of his wedding, Dantès is arrested for his alleged crimes.
The Deputy Public Prosecutor, Villefort, sees through the plot to frame Dantès and is prepared to set him free. At the last moment, though, Dantès jeopardizes his freedom by revealing the name of the man to whom he is supposed to deliver Napoleon's letter. The man, Noitier, is Villefort's father. Terrified that any public knowledge of his father's treasonist activites will thwart his own ambitions, Villefort decides to send Dantès to prison for life. Despite the entreaties of Monsieur Morrel, Dantès's kind and honest boss, Dantès is sent to the infamous Chateau d'If, where the most dangerous political prisoners are kept.
While in prison, Dantès meets Abbé Faria an Italian priest and intellectual, who has been jailed for his political views. Faria teaches Dantès history, science, philosophy, and languages, turning him into a well-educated man. Faria also bequeaths to him a large treasure hidden on the island of Monte Cristo, and he tells him how to find it should he ever escape. When Faria dies, Dantès hides himself in his friend's shroud, thinking that he will be buried, and then dig his way out. Instead, he is thrown into the sea, but he is able to cut himself loose and swim to freedom.
Dantès travels to Monte Cristo and finds his enormous treasure. He considers his fortune a gift from God, given to him for the sole purpose of rewarding those who tried to help him and, more importantly, punishing those who hurt him. Disguised as an Italian priest who answers to the name of Abbé Busoni, he travels back to Marseilles and pays a visit to Caderousse who is now struggling to make a living as an innkeeper. From Caderousse he learns the details of the plot to frame him. In addition, he learns that his father died of grief in his absence, and that Mercédès, his fiancée, has married Fernand Mondego. Perhaps most frustratingly, he learns that both Danglars and Mondego have become rich and powerful and are living happily in Paris. As a reward for this information, and for Caderousse's apparent regret over the part he played in Dantès' downfall, Dantès gives Caderousse a valuable diamond. Before leaving Marseilles, he anonymously saves Morrel from financial ruin.
Ten years later, Dantès emerges in Rome, calling himself the Count of Monte Cristo, and seeming to be all-knowing and unstoppable. There he ingratiates himself to Albert de Morcerf, son of Fernand Mondego and Mercédès, by saving him from bandits. In return for the favor, Albert introduces Dantès into Paris society. None of his old cohorts recognize the mysterious count as Edmond Dantès (except for Mercedes), and he is able to insinuate himself effortlessly into the lives of Danglars, Mondego, and Villefort. Armed with damning knowledge concerning each of them, which he has gathered over the past decade, Dantès sets an elaborate scheme of revenge into motion.
Mondego, now known as the Count of Morcerf, is the first to be punished. Dantès exposes Morcerf's darkest secret: that he made his fortune by betraying his former patron, Ali Pacha, a Greek vizier, and that he then sold Ali Pacha's wife and daughter into slavery. Haydee, Ali Pacha's daughter, who has lived with Dantès ever since be bought her freedom seven years earlier, testifies against Morcerf in court, irretrievably ruining his good name. Ashamed by his treachery, Albert and Mercedes flee, leaving their tainted fortune behind. Morcerf commits suicide.
Villefort's punishment comes slowly and in several stages. Dantès first takes advantage of Madame de Villefort's murderous intent, subtly tutoring her in the uses of poison. As Madame de Villefort wreaks her havoc, killing off each member of the household in turn, Dantès plants the seeds for yet another public exposé. In court, it is revealed that Villefort is guilty of attempted infanticide: he tried to bury his illegitimate baby while it was still alive. Finally, believing that everyone he loves is dead, and knowing that he will soon be faced with severe criminal charges, he goes insane.
For his revenge on Danglars, Dantès simply plays upon his enemy's greed. He opens various false credit accounts with Danglars and causes him to lose vast amounts of money. He also manipulates Danglars's unfaithful, dishonest wife, costing Danglers much money, and he helps Danglars's daughter Eugenie run away with her lesbian lover. Finally, when Danglers is nearly broke, and about to illegally run away without paying any of his creditors, Dantès has the Italian bandit Luigi Vampa kidnap him and relieve him of his remaining money. Dantès spares Danglers' life, but Dantès leaves him penniless.
Meanwhile, as these acts of vengeance play out, Dante is also trying to effect one more act of goodness. In order to help the brave and honorable Maximilien Morrel, son of the kind ship owner, the count hatches an elaborate plot to save Maximilien's fiancée Valentine Villefort from her murderous stepmother, to ensure that the couple will be truly happy forever. He gives the girl a pill that makes her appear dead, and then he carries her off to the island of Monte Cristo. For a month he allows Maximilien to believe that his true love is dead and long for death himself. He then reveals that Valentine is alive. Having known the lowest depths of despair, Maximilien is now able to experience the height of ecstasy. Dantès, too, finally finds happiness, when he allows himself to fall in love with the adoring and beautiful Haydee.
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